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The Battle of Stalingrad (July 17, 1942-February 2, 1943)

Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of Russia by the Germans, began on June 22, 1941, with a sweeping onslaught over the Russian border, using 150 divisions (three million German soldiers). In the first month, the Germans covered between 200 to 400 miles, and then began the three-prong division of forces. One section headed northeast to Leningrad, commanded by Field Marshall Wilhelm von Leeb; the central part moved towards Moscow, commanded by Field Marshall Fedor von Bock; and the third part headed southeast, first to Kiev, then Rostov, close to Stalingrad, commanded by Field Marshall Gerd von Rundstedt. Unfortunately for the German command, Adolf Hitler then decided he wanted to split up groups to reinforce the drive, both north and south, instead of moving decisively straight to Moscow. It was during this delayed time of bickering between generals and Hitler about the best direction to advance, that the Russians began to regroup and fortify towns in preparation for fighting back.

Division of Forces

German Field Marshall Rundstedt had initially taken Kiev before the stalemate at the German Command offices. Then he took Rostov, but due to bad weather, could not hold it, so lost it again. Once the summer weather came in, the Germans pushed back, re-taking Rostov, and then Sevastopol, Novorossisk, and finally, the oil fields of Maikop. When the German forces took Sevastopol, the German army was split into two groups, with Group B heading north towards Stalingrad, commanded by General Friedrich Paulus, while Group A headed towards Maikop. On August 23, 1942, the first arrival of Group B, one panzer division and the 3rd Motorized Division, arrived at the northern and southern outskirts of Stalingrad, and waited on the edge of the Volga River for the rest of the forces to pull up.

The Battle Begins

Early on, there was very little resistance, and a massive bombing raid was conducted first, reducing much of Stalingrad into rubble. The Sixth German Army under Paulus, formed of five army corps, 13 infantries, three panzers, three motorized divisions, and one antiaircraft division, began moving into the city. However, the rubble and multitude of dead bodies in the streets, created numerous obstructions in moving forward quickly. As the Germans moved slowly through the city, with Hitler badgering Paulus to make a quick end of things, Russian command was sending in more soldiers. With German forces fully committed inside the city, the battle became bloody, with desperate Russian soldiers and armed civilians fighting hand-to-hand combat with equally desperate German soldiers.

General V.I. Chuikov oversaw the Russian 62nd Army, which was defending the city, while Marshal Georgii K. Zhukov planned a counteroffensive from outside the city. In November 1942, Zhukov surrounded Stalingrad in the event known as Operation Uranus, using six armies of one million soldiers, while Hitler demanded his soldiers stay and fight, with no thought of retreat or surrender. A rescue attempt was made for the German soldiers in Stalingrad, by the 57th Panzer division under General Hermann Hoth, but it only got as far as the Askay River, before it was taken completely out.

Hitler promoted General Paulus to Field Marshall on January 30th, but Paulus, who was captured by the Russians along with his staff on January 31st, and realizing that there was no hope for supplies and reinforcements, surrendered his 91,000 remaining soldiers on February 2, 1943.

The ramifications from this battle was that the Germans suffered a serious defeat, and it was a turning point in World War II, where it was seen that Germany could be defeated. Part of the problem was Hitler’s inability to strategize properly, including understanding the weather problems, and how delays would change the battle plan layout.

It is also said that Hitler wanted Stalingrad destroyed because it carried the name of Russia’s leader, while Stalin refused to give up Stalingrad for the very same reason. With this massive loss of German soldiers, it also weakened Germany to a point, that when the Russians invaded Germany, there were not enough German forces to stave off the attack effectively.

The number of German dead soldiers was about 150,000 picked up from the field, while nearly 100,000 Russian soldiers and civilians died in the battle at Stalingrad.

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Photo Gallery

Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber over Stalingrad, September 1942
Photographer:Klose
Source: German Federal Archive

German soldiers riding on a StuG lll assault gun, October 1942
Photographer: Heine
Source:German Federal Archive

A wrecked Soviet T-34 medium tank October 8 1942
Photographer: Herber
Source: German Federal Archive

Soviet soldiers fighting in the ruins of Stalingrad, late 1942 or early 1943
Source: German Federal Archive

Two Russian women in the ruins of Stalingrad, August 1942
Photographer: Jakov Rjumkin
Source: German Federal Archive

Russian infantry firing their weapons from a rooftop in Stalingrad February 2 1943
Source: German Federal Archive

Soviet soldier advancing in 1943
Photographer: Georgi Zelma
Source: Russian International News Agency

Soviet Soldier waving a red flag as a sign of victory at a building near the central square, January or February 1943
Photographer: Georgi Zelma
Source: German Federal Archive

Operation Detachment, the attack on the Japanese island of Iwo Jima, was just the first step towards an attack on the island of Japan. Both Iwo Jima and Okinawa were important because the Americans needed a base from which to launch that final attack. Iwo Jima also had a radar warning system, with several small airports from which Japanese planes easily could target marine vessels. Therefore, it was vital that the island be captured. For the Americans, these airports would be a haven for any damaged B-29 “Superfortresses” bombers, who needed somewhere close by to land, or else be lost at sea. Three days before the invasion began, naval and air bombardments began on the island, in hopes of reducing the Japanese presence.

The Invasion

When the first Marine divisions landed on the beaches on February 19th, 1945, there was little resistance from the Japanese. But Iwo Jima was an unforgiving terrain of volcanic hardened ash and fine black cinder particles, that hindered both men and amphibious tractor vehicles (amtracs), trying to wade, or roll through it. Many amtracs got stuck on the edge of the beaches, where no traction was available and, eventually, the landing points began to back up with struggling soldiers and immobilized vehicles. The Japanese chose to wait until there was a large enough presence of American troops on the beaches, along with their immovable armored vehicles, and then they opened fire, creating a blood bath on the beaches.

There were over 21,000 Japanese soldiers hidden in a centralized cobweb of caves and corridors, similar to those at Peleliu, leading from one position to another, where attacks could take place at a moment’s notice. Led by General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, the Japanese soldiers were told that before they died on that island, they had to kill at least 10 Americans each, and they did their best to obey that order. Mount Suribachi was located at the southern end, where Japanese soldiers could see out and radio in positions to the northern end, thus setting up the concentrated firing line against those on the beaches. Once assault signal companies arrived on the scene, they were able to pinpoint where the firing was coming from, and American naval bombing became more accurate and effective. The persistent Americans continued landing on the beaches, and moving forward, until it finally became clear to the Japanese that they were outmanned and the Americans were there to take them down.

One Marine regiment headed south to strike at Mount Suribachi, and as they moved over the terrain towards their goal, they bombed and burned pillboxes, caves, and sealed up any connecting tunnels they could find. It was a brutal hard path they made with their flamethrowers, grenades, rockets, and whatever else they could use, to destroy the enemy.

After this battle, a Marine group of soldiers climbed their way up Mount Suribachi, meeting little resistance by then. They finally reached the summit on February 23rd, whereupon the Marines raised the American flag, immortalized in a famous photograph by Joseph John Rosenthal, seen in newspapers around the world. The Marine Corps War Memorial statue that is located close to Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, is modeled after this picture. When the flag went up, the Marines below cheered loudly and the navy vessel commanders and sailors, who had been watching the journey up the hill through binoculars, had the ship horns blown. It boosted the morale of the fighters on the field of battle and they renewed the fight to capture the island.

Another Marine group had already moved north into what was known as the ‘meatgrinder’, fighting in gullies, caverns, and on ledges, to defeat the enemy. They used flamethrowers and, when possible, tanks. They were also assisted by warship and aircraft bombings, pulverizing the terrain wherever needed, but it was mainly a battlefield conducted on foot. With the addition of another Marine division, as well as a surprise attack at night, the Japanese defenses finally fell apart, and Iwo Jima was officially won by the Americans on March 26th, 1945. The battle had been fought, inch by inch, with many lives lost.

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Facts to know:

Photo Gallery

Iwo Jima during the pre-invasion bombardment with Mount Suribachi in the foreground, February 17 1945
Source: United States National Archives

U.S. Marines crouched to avoid enemy fire in a Coast Guard-manned LCVP. This is the first wave to hit the beach of Iwo Jima, February 19 1945
Source: United States Navy Naval History and Heritage Command

An U.S. Marine firing his Browning M1917 machine gun on Iwo Jima, February 19 1945
Source: United States Marine Corps

U.S. Marine M4A3 Sherman flamethrower tank on Iwo Jima, February 1945
Source: United States Marine Corps

U.S. Marine mortar crew on Iwo Jima, 1945
Source: United States Marine Corps

U.S. Marines fighting on Iwo Jima February 19 1945
Photographer: Bob Campbell
Source: United States Marine Corps.

Raising the U.S. flag to signal victory atop Mount Suribachi Iwo Jima by Joe Rosenthal February 23 1945
Photographer: Joe Rosenthal
Source : United States National Archives

The Events Leading to Full-Scale War with Japan

Before World War II began, Japan had already begun incursions into China around 1931, with occasional localized resistance from the Chinese people. Japan, a small island with its own limited resources, planned on taking over China’s raw material resources that Japan needed, to survive. Internally, China was still in a state of disarray from the dissolution of the Qing Dynasty and abdication of its last emperor, and later, the installation of the new Republic of China government in 1912, which faced opposition from warlords. Therefore, China was vulnerable to any outside attacks.

Sun Yat-sen founded the Chinese National Party in 1912, also known as the Kuomintang (KMT), which lasted one year, and was then disbanded. After seven years of failed rule, the KMT was brought back to life in 1919 and it became the ruling party. After Sun passed away in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek took over as leader, and set about unifying China, including fighting against the newly formed Communist Party of China (CPC). Between fighting the CPC and the occasional pocket skirmishes with the encroaching aggressive Japanese military forces, it was only a matter of time before a full-scale war would break out.

The War Begins with the Shooting of a Japanese Officer on August 9, 1937

It took one small event, the shooting of a Japanese officer at Hungchiao Airport, and the incident blew wide open, leading Chiang Kai-shek to finally take on a full-out stand. The Japanese navy in Shanghai, with only 300 troops, occupied a small garrison close to the Huangpu River, which fed into the nearby Yangtze River at the Wusong Estuary. Chiang decided he would push the garrison occupants right out into the river. But, he did not take into consideration the naval and air support the fortified garrison would receive from the Japanese navy coming up the Yangtze River from the Yellow Sea close by, or the Japanese troops marching south from Beiping (later known as Beijing after 1949).

Chiang’s army of German-trained Chinese soldiers began their frontal attacks on August 11th, but did not have the larger weapons necessary to bombard the garrison, causing the KMT to suffer heavy casualties in the hundreds of thousands. The entrenched Japanese fighters also suffered heavy losses, but refused to give up.

On August 13th, 10,000 Japanese troops entered Shanghai, and fighting broke out in several districts. At the same time, the 3rd Fleet of the Japanese navy began bombarding Shanghai. On August 14th, Japanese planes from Taiwan began bombing the city as well. Many citizens began leaving the city in droves, creating chaos in the streets. Nearly 10,000 died from these bombings.

The Japanese conducted an amphibious landing, northeast of Shanghai, and fought their way towards inner Shanghai and the garrison. Both sides held as best as they could, but the losses kept rising on both sides as well.

Over the next few months, there were several notable battles in various Shanghai areas, such as the Battle of Jiangyin (August 16th to October 30th) and the Chinese blockade on the Yangtze River to obstruct any Japanese vessels from coming up the river, but it was finally destroyed by aerial bombardment and from navy ships. During the Battle of Luodian (September 11th -15th), the Chinese held the suburban town, as it was a major transportation center, but finally lost it to the Japanese. The Battle for Dachang (October 1st – 25th) was to protect the Chinese center of communications, but was also finally lost to the Japanese.

The Battle for the Sihang Warehouse (October 27th – November 1st ) was one of the most notable small battles in Shanghai, where 414 members of the 524th Regiment, 88th Division under Xie Jinyuan, holed up and planned to fight to the end, as the international community watched from afar. The warehouse stored an abundance of food, medical supplies, and light arms and ammunition, and it would be a last stand situation, geared to garner the sympathies of the west, particularly the Americans.

The Chinese defenders received intelligence from local civilians who held up signs with information, while standing on a nearby bank. Meanwhile, the Japanese cut the electricity and water lines, and attacked any vehicles bringing in supplies, donated by civilians, to the warehouse. Finally, after a very heavy Japanese bombardment, the Chinese defenders, at Chiang’s and western powers’ insistence, left the warehouse, although the Japanese shot several on the way out. This battle was the most public visual picture of the Battle for Shanghai that the western powers saw, and was an inspiration for the Chinese country.

On November 5th, the end of the Battle for Shanghai came, when a second amphibious landing took place south of the city around November, and this time, Chiang realized that they would have to retreat. By November 12th, all Chinese soldiers had exited the city, and the Japanese took over. This would be the first large battle of the Japanese against the Chinese, and took three months instead of three days, as the Japanese originally claimed it would take.

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Leaders and Troops at The Battle of Shanghai

Photo Gallery

Japanese troops landing near Shanghai, August 1937

Chinese soldiers in a defensive machine gun nest, September 1937

Chinese soldier defending Shanghai, September or October 1937

Japanese infantry huddling near a destroyed wall, 1937
Source: United States Library of Congress

Japanese howitzer in the streets of Shanghai, August 1937

Troops of the Chinese 88th Division defending a street intersection, September or October 1937

Japanese troops fighting in the streets, 1937

Japanese soldiers street fighting, September or October 1937

After the Germans defeated the Soviet Union’s 6th Army at Stalingrad, plans were made to attack Kursk, recommended by Field Marshall Erich von Manstein. Adolf Hitler agreed but delayed the plans for a month or so, because he wanted to deliver new tanks to the German forces. The Russians had intercepted messages regarding these plans, and the delay of the attack, allowed them to make defensive plans, and fortify themselves. The objective for the Germans, was to totally destroy the Russian army, and break the people’s resistance. They also wanted to separate the Russians away from the rest of the Allied group, as there was already Russian discontent with the Allies in their not pushing forward with opening up a second western front.

The Attack Begins

As the Russians already knew about the upcoming attack, they began their own attack with an artillery barrage at 2 a.m., on July 5th, 1943. The Germans, now knowing that their plans had been uncovered, began their attack at 4:30 a.m. with their own artillery barrage. Then, they began moving forward, with the 9th Army attacking from both the northern and southern points, heading towards the city. Both sides came to the battle heavily armed with tanks, with the Germans and their Tiger and Panther tanks. They also had the new Ferdinand self-propelled gun, which was very sturdy and accurate. However, set on Tiger tanks, the new cannon proved to be very vulnerable to Russian tank shots from off center positions. The cannon could only fire in a forward position, as it was installed on a fixed turret, making it difficult to adjust to different positions. The tank also had to stop in order to fire.

Once the Tiger with the Ferdinand was at 500 yards, the Russians, who had camouflaged their tanks in most locations, could begin firing back with their own 45-mm cannons, and by 300 yards, they were able to pierce the frontal sections of the German tanks. The Ferdinand mount design also required a large hole at the back, to allow space for the cannon recoil and ejections of the shells. This made it vulnerable to Russian soldiers rushing in from behind, and tossing in grenades and Molotov cocktails (glass bottles with flammable liquids with a lit cloth wick).

While the Germans came well-armed, the Russians had built better defenses, and were able to hold off and, eventually, begin pushing back the Germans. The German army had lost 25,000 soldiers in the first 24 hours, along with 200 aircraft and 200 tanks. As of July 10th, they had lost over two-thirds of the Tiger tanks.

On July 12th, a 1,500 tanks were involved at a battle, that took place, 50 miles southest of Kursk, at Prokhorovka. The Germans from the northern attack group, failed in this battle as well, losing 10,000 men and 350 tanks. The Russians began pushing them back from this point, and by July 19th, having retreated some 45 miles already, Hitler agreed to a further retreat back to Orel, where the army could reorganize again. Every step of the way, the Germans were bombarded by Russian air fighters, and also contended with local partisan groups, who destroyed much of the rail tracks as well.

The southern German attack forces were having similar problems. Having started out with 300,000 men and 600 tanks, against 1 million Russian soldiers and their tanks groups, not including the reserves they also had in place, the Germans had to retreat. Rail lines had also been damaged in this area, including the derailment of over 1,000 train loads of German troops, who were to be reinforcements. When the Russians took back and liberated the city of Kharkov, then for all intents and purposes, the battle of Kursk was considered over. The Germans had lost 500,000 men in casualties, either killed, lost, or injured, including massive amounts of armor, particularly in tanks, and this battle was considered the death knell of German invasion goals in Russia.

Photo Gallery

Soviet PTRD-41 anti-tank rifle and crew near Kursk, Russia, July 1943
Photographer: Natalia Fedorovna Bode
Source: Russian International News Agency

Soviet Il-2 ground attack aircraft attacking a German motorized column near Kursk, Russia, July 1943
Photographer: F. Levshin
Source: Russian International News Agency

German Waffen-SS Tiger I heavy tank in action near Kursk, Russia, June or July 1943
Photographer: Grönert
Source: German Federal Archive

German crew of a Panzer III medium tank of 2nd SS Panzer Division ‘Das Reich’ resting near Belgorod, Russia, July1943
Photographer: Friedrich Zschäckel
Source: German Federal Archive

Camouflaged German 2 cm Flakvierling 38 anti-aircraft gun mounted on a SdKfz. 7 half-track, immediately prior to Battle of Kursk, summer of 1943
Photographer: Wolff/Altvater
Source: German Federal Archive

German troops loading a 15 cm NbW 41 rocket launcher, near Kursk, Russia, summer of 1943
Photographer: Harschneck
Source: German Federal Archive

The Battle of Okinawa

On the Sea

The battle of Okinawa, code name Operation Iceberg, intended as the last step before the planned invasion of Japan, was fought on both land and sea. It became the last major battle in the Pacific in World War II. While Americans were slugging it out with entrenched well-armed Japanese on the island, a picket line of destroyers (DDs) and destroyer escort (DEs) vessels, kept open the lifeline of sea lanes needed to keep reinforcements coming in on a continuous basis. Kamikaze pilots, who volunteered for the honor to drive their planes into the vessels, carried roughly 3,000 to 4,700 pounds of explosives, strapped to the plane’s belly, which was then aimed at the target vessel. Added to this, were several mini submarines and speed boats, which sped to the vessels, to accomplish the same end result from sea level, aiming into the sides of the American vessels.

The Strategy at Sea

A ring of DDs and DEs were set for surrounding the island to protect the lanes and landing points on the island. A picket line point was set at 20 miles out, with a second at 40 miles out, and a third at 70 miles out. Each point had rings of picket groups, and all were named Task Flotilla 5. Each ring was assigned a fighter-director team, which connected with a specified fighter squadron, that could be called in for help. Starting out with one destroyer for each ring, more were added on over the following days, because of the fierce attacks made by planes and small vessels.

Of note was the destroyer, the U.S.S. Hadley, which joined Station 15 on the picket line. In joint operations with the destroyer Evans on April 11th, the two ships took out 50 planes and rockets in the air, in just one day. The Hadley took many hits during this battle and almost sank, continuing to fire its guns, but was finally saved by its crew before it could sink. Twenty-eight sailors were lost, and 67 wounded onboard the Hadley.

Of 98 destroyers and 52 destroyer escorts sent out, 61 were hit during these attacks. Over 5,000 sailors and crew died, while 4,800 were wounded, with 13 destroyers and one destroyer escort sunk. Vessels severely damaged were 10 battleships, 13 carriers, and five cruisers, while 47 destroyers and escorts had also been damaged. It is unknown just how many kamikaze planes and boats, including their operators were lost.

On the Island

The Japanese soldiers were holed up in defense lines across the island, within pillboxes, caves, and several old castles, making it hard for the Americans to get to them without incurring casualties. The Allied objective was to capture the island’s airports, Yontan and Kadena, utilizing the 111 Amphibious Corps and the XXIV Army Corps under Lt. General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. The 6th Marine Division landed on the northern beaches to the west, while the 7th and 96th Infantry Divisions landed in the southern half. Marine air groups of fighters and light bombers gave support from overhead.

Opposition, initially, was very light, and Yontan Airfield was easily captured, with Kadena captured by nightfall. As parts of the island were taken, it wasn’t until April 6th, that the first major resistance came from the embedded Japanese soldiers. The Americans had to strengthen its forces before moving further. On May 3rd, Japanese troop reinforcements landed on the wrong beach where Company B, fronted the XXIV Corps, and the two sides engaged in fierce battle, which the Americans finally won.

Alerted by this one attempt for Japanese soldiers landing on the island, the rest of the coastlines were protected from any further landings and Japanese reinforcements. The Americans, however, were still getting reinforcements. The American troops began moving throughout the island to flush out the enemy troops, engaging in bloody battles along the way. As the Americans had better training than the majority of Japanese soldiers, it was only a matter of time, until their downfall. But that still came at a cost to both sides, more so for the Japanese. On June 19th, Japanese soldiers began surrendering to the Americans by the hundreds, and on June 22nd, Marine Maj. Gen. Roy Geiger declared the island as won.

Six weeks later, two atomic bombs were dropped over Japan, one on Hiroshima, and one on Nagasaki, thus ending the war. The invasion of Japan never occurred as originally planned.

Facts to know:

Photo Gallery

U.S. soldiers after landing from a LVT on an island near Okinawa Japan, March 27 1945

USS Hancock desperately trying to control the fire after being hit by Japanese aircraft off of Okinawa, April 7 1945

Japanese Battleship Yamamoto under attack by U.S. aircraft, April 7 1945

U.S. Corsair firing its rockets at a Japanese position on Okinawa, June 1945

U.S. Marine aims his Thompson submachine gun at a Japanese sniper on Okinawa, April, May or June 1945

U.S. soldiers and an American M4 Sherman medium tank on Ginowan Road, Okinawa, April, May or June 1945

American M1919 machine gun crew, Okinawa, 1945

A U.S. Marine raises an American flag over Shuri Castle on Okinawa, May 29 1945

When the End Began

The Battle to take Berlin began on April 16th, 1945, with the Soviet Union marching towards the city, while the rest of the Allied forces waited out to the west, 60 miles away. By prior arrangement, the Soviets would have the right to take the city. Fifty miles east of Berlin, Marshal Georgi K. Zhukov waited at Küstrin on the Oder with 768,100 soldiers, ready to roll forward with mortars, tanks, light and heavy artillery, and multi-barreled rockets launchers (Katyushas). He had brought everything he could get his hands on, and was ready to hit at the German troops located close by. Zhokov counted down the minutes until 4 a.m., and when it arrived, an inferno of bombs, artillery, and all the revenge of the Russians, rained down on the German countryside and troops. It was the beginning of pure revenge from those who had suffered during the Germans’ previous invasion into the Soviet Union, and there would be no quarter given. Germans soldiers’ bodies were piled high, including some of the Russians who got caught by Russian bombs.

From the south, when 6 a.m. came, Marshall Ivan Konev, of the 1st Ukrainian Army Group, attacked from across the Neisse River, with nearly as heavy a bombardment as Zukov’s attack. Both Marshalls wanted the glory of entering Berlin first, so when Zukov was having difficulty breaking through the Seelow Heights, Konev quickly asked permission of Stalin to move into Berlin, as he was ready to go. Yet, as permission came, and he broke through the city’s southern defenses, Stalin gave him orders to cover the western part of the city, while Zhukov got the other side, including the prize location for the Soviet Union flag to be raised – The Reichstag.

Inside Berlin

Both Russian armies moved in, battling from street to street against any soldiers still there, along with any citizens, who could fight, while services and transportation came to a standstill, including the telegraph office. Most Germans left in Berlin, feared the retributions of the Russians for the 23 million Russian soldiers and citizens who had died at the hands of German soldiers during the invasion of Russia that started in 1941. The German defense units left to fight the Russians in the city, with no plans drawn up for the city’s defense, were close to 300,00, but mainly old men and young boys, sent to the slaughter, some against their will by death threats from the SS. , Many SS soldiers hanged any boys and others, who would not fight. As the Russians moved through the streets, they looted stores and homes, assaulted women, and destroyed everything in their path.

In the midst of the fighting in his city, Adolf Hitler was huddled in his bunker with his mistress, Eva Braun, whom he married in the last hours of their lives, on April 28th, 1945. After writing out his will early the next morning, with Martin Bormann, Dr. Joseph Goebbels, and Colonel Nicholas von Below as witnesses, Hitler later had his last staff conference, and then retired with Eva into their room. While both took poison, Hitler also shot himself in the head. Both were later found by their valet, who wrapped them in blankets, and, with the help of others, put them outside in the garden. With gasoline poured over them, they were then burned, and later covered, as per Hitler’s wishes.

The fighting continued on for several days, with Russians battling against Germans on foot with portable anti-tank weapons, along with hit-and-run attacks, particularly by boys, who were made to run under the tanks and detonate a grenade.

The End of the German Nazi Regime

Finally, on May 2nd, Berlin surrendered to the Russians, with the whole of Germany, surrendering on May 7th, 1945. The Russians had 275,000 wounded or missing, with about 80,000 killed in action. During this battle, 150,000 Germans were killed. It was after the fall of Berlin, that the truth of the Jewish extinction program was finally uncovered for everyone to see.
Stalin had asked for the right to enter Berlin first, publically, because he wanted revenge on the Germans. But there was also another lesser known reason, and that was the desire to get his hands on the Germans’ nuclear research center. The NKVD special troops, assigned to carry out this task, found three tons of uranium oxide, which they took control of, and shipped it all back to Russia. This helped shore up Russia’s own nuclear program, initiating Operation Borodino, which had been slow to start.

Photo Gallery

Soviet BM-13 Katyusha rocket launchers firing on Berlin with devastating effect, April 1945

Volksstrum soldier with a Panzerschreck anti-tank rocket launcher near Berlin, late April 1945

Captured Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin 1945.

Red army soldier raising the Soviet flag over the Reichstag building in a symbol of victory, May 2 1945

The original plans for Operation Dragoon (formerly called Anvil), the invasion of southern France, was to coincide with the landings at Normandy (Operation Sledgehammer), on the northern coastline. Due to the Allied invasion of Italy, which was taking longer than expected, the southern France invasion plan was put back until August, 1944. Both Sledgehammer and Anvil were then renamed Operation Overlord and Operation Dragoon, respectively. The landing groups consisted of the 3rd, 45th, and 36th Infantry Divisions of the 6th Corps on three beaches of the Var coastline, close to Toulon. These beaches were at Cavalaire-sur-Mer, Saint-Tropez, and Saint-Raphaël (codename Alpha, Delta, and Camel respectively). The 1st Airborne Task Force, meanwhile, would drop in at Le Muy, to engage the Germans, and prevent them from attacking the beach landings, while Task Force 88 at sea, would provide gunfire and air support. The Le Muy area was vital for capturing because it would help secure the beach landings, as well as provide a pathway into the Argens valley corridor. German defenses, during this time, consisted of one tank battalion of the 11th Panzer Division, and 11 divisions of Army Group G, thinly stretched over 56 miles on the coast. Many of the German forces had been moved north by then, to fight against the northern invasion at Normandy and surrounding areas.

The Invasion

On August 14th, the first landings began, starting with taking over the islands of Port-Cros and Levant, of the Îles d’Hyères, by the 1st Special Service Force. Much of the communications and transportation systems had already been taken out by French resistance fighters on land, while any battery unit installations on Cap Nègre were destroyed by French commandos, providing a fairly easy landing for those on Alpha and Delta beaches. Those landing on Camel, however, had far more resistance, and had to readjust to a different landing point. While some German troops surrendered to the Allies, as they moved inland the rest retreated north, with skirmishes along the way. Of importance, was the fact that when the railroads were destroyed in order to cut off supplies to the Germans before the invasion started, the Allies had to wait until they were re-established enough, including the opening of nearby ports, to get their own supplies rolling in again.

While Allied troops were attempting to cut off the escape route of the retreating Germans, French troops headed along the coast to Toulon and Marseille, engaged the enemy, and liberated both cities on August 27th. Mobile forces, along with the 36th Infantry Division, met up with the retreating Germans, who turned to take a stand at Montélimar. While both sides battled each other, neither could move one way or another until, finally, the Germans turned and escaped north. The Allies, now refortified with VI Corps and the French II Corps, captured Montelimar first, then liberated Lyon, as they gave chase to the retreating Germans, who finally escaped through the Vosges Mountains.

The invasion from the south, greatly assisted operations in the north in freeing France from the German occupation. This invasion and subsequent battle occurred between two larger events, the Battle of Normandy and the Invasion (Liberation) of Italy, and, therefore, is not discussed as much, yet has great importance to the success of the northern Allied endeavors in France. The Allied retaking of the railroads and sea ports, Marseilles in particular, allowed for reinforcements and supplies to be brought in and transported quickly to the front lines. With the Allies now controlling the Mediterranean, it was open waters for the Allies to push back the Germans into their homeland, and have enough supplies to do it. It should also be noted that the combined Franco-American forces were at their best during this time, mainly because the French were finally ridding themselves of the German fascist regime. The assistance from French resistance groups also helped immeasurably to get supplies from the locals, along with other assistance, which kept the forces going.

Before the battle of Midway in the Pacific, Naval Allied Command had received a break-through opportunity, when intelligence cryptologists deciphered Japanese messages, detailing an upcoming surprise attack somewhere in the Pacific. This engagement was designed to draw out any US Naval vessels in the area, and destroy them, taking American naval powers out of action.

Accordingly, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz designed a counterattack plan to surprise the Japanese and beat them at their own game. First, suspecting that Midway Island (Atoll) was the target, Nimitz had the base operators at Midway send out a message that they were ‘short of water’. When the Japanese relayed this information back to their headquarters, including resulting messages detailing dates of the planned Japanese attack, this provided the confirmation that Nimitz needed to consolidate his own surprise attack.

Aside from the regular garrison there, Nimitz also began providing supplies and reinforcements on the island, and the island commanders fortified the defenses, laying down barbed wire and hidden guns in strategic locations. About 19 submarines were located around the south and east sides, through to the north. Nimitz consolidated his own attack forces.

The Attack Begins

On June 4th, Japanese bombers attacked the Midway base, heavily damaging it. As the bombers began returning to their carriers to refuel, the Japanese discovered the US naval fleet was on the eastern side of the island. At this point, with the Japanese air fleet between sorties, the US sent out its Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers and SBD Dauntless dive bombers to attack the Japanese carriers Akagi, Kaga, Hiryu, and Soryu. Of those four carriers, only the Hiryu survived a short time longer. Aircraft carriers present at the battle on the US side were the USS Enterprise, USS Hornet, and USS Yorktown, with the Yorktown suffering two retaliatory bombing attacks from the Hiryu. In return, the USS Enterprise sent out its dive bombers and bombed the Hiryu, until it was left burning and without capabilities to send out any aircraft. The Japanese heavy cruiser, Mikuma, was also totally destroyed.

Over the next two days, the US naval group, still consisting of the Enterprise and the Hornet, along with six cruisers and nine destroyers, continued to harass the Japanese. While the Japanese fought back with the few planes they had left, the Americans continued to hit cruisers and other vessels still left. Finally, the Japanese turned away and left, under orders of their commander, Yamamoto.

In total, the Japanese lost 322 aircraft and close to 5,000 sailors, along with aircraft ground crews and trained mechanics, vital to Japanese aircraft maintenance. One-third of the Japanese pilots were lost.

On the American side, however, the Douglas TBD torpedo bombers suffered 36 out of 42 bombers lost, as they came in for their strikes, when they became separated from the SBD Dauntless dive bombers. In total, 147 American aircraft were lost, along with 307 sailors, one destroyer, and the USS Hammann, which was assisting in salvaging the USS Yorktown. Both finally sank after an attack from the Japanese submarine, I-168.

It was later uncovered that another reason for the Japanese choosing Midway to invade, was due to the surprise air bombing attack on Tokyo by the Doolittle squad in April, 1942. The Japanese calculated that Midway was the most logical takeoff point for the planes, and it should be taken over. Hence, the reason for the battle at Midway.

Photo Gallery

Japanese B5N torpedo bomber from carrier Hiryu attacking Yorktown, June 4 1942
Source: United States National Archives

Aerial view of both the Midway Islands and the Naval Air Station, June 1942
Source: United States Army via Hawaii Aviation Preservation Society

American F4F-4 Wildcat fighters and SBD Dauntless dive bombers being prepared to launch from the USS Hornet’s flight desk off Midway, June 4 1942
Source: United States Navy

Large guns of the USS Pensacola looking astern during the Battle of Midway June 4 1942.
Source: United States National Archives

The Yorktown’s Starboard side guns that are ready to fire, June 4 1942
Photographer: William G. Roy
Source: United States National Archives

Two Japanese B5N Type 97 torpedo bombers flew by carrier Yorktown and destroyer Morris, June 4 1942
Source: United States National Archives

After Allied forces defeated the Axis German and Italian forces in Africa in 1943, the Axis forces retreated through Sicily, crossed the Strait of Messina, and moved into Italy to the Po Valley. From here, the Germans planned to hold the northern industrial section of Italy. Operation Husky (July 10 to August 17, 1943) was conducted with the invasion of Sicily and was achieved in 38 days, with heavy fighting against the Axis forces. On July 24th, as a consequence of Operation Husky, the Italian Fascist Dictator Benito (Il Duce) Mussolini was voted out of power, and then arrested. General Pietro Badoglio was made Prime Minister, whereupon he began arranging armistice terms with the Allies. Italy surrendered unconditionally on September 8th, and on October 13th, Italy declared war on Germany. Meanwhile, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans and he set up a puppet government in northern German-occupied Italy with his own groups of fanatical Fascist counterinsurgents.

The Invasion and Liberation of Italy Begins

On September 3rd, 1943, the first landing with the XXX Corps of the 8th Army under General Sir Bernard Montgomery, began at several different positions in Calabria. There was little resistance from the enemy, but destroyed roads and bridges, rugged terrain, along with mines, slowed down the advance north. The objective here was to draw down the German troops from their northern positions, whereupon, under Operation Avalanche, General Sir Harold Alexander, commander of the 15th Army Group, could land some of his troops south of Salerno on the opposite side, and move to cut off the Germans from behind.

On September 9th, one day after Italy surrendered to the Allies, and Italian armies were disarmed by the Germans, General Mark Clark (5th Army) ordered Avalanche to begin, using the US VI Corps and the British X Corps. The British (46th and 56th Divisions) landed on the northern point, while the US troops (36th Infantry Division), landed further south of Salerno. The landing points were covered by US Army Rangers and British Commandoes, who would secure the Sorrento Peninsula mountain passes, as well as block any reinforcements coming from northern sectors. However, the X Corps endured heavy attacks, until finally, reinforcements arrived, along with naval gunfire which drove the Germans back. Simultaneously, the port of Taranto (Operation Slapstick) was easily taken over by the 1st Airborne Division and 78th Division of the British Army, but later on the 11th, suffered damages to cruisers, when the Luftwaffe attacked with bombs.

The Allied forces began moving north, taking Foggia on September 27th, and Naples on October 1st. Meanwhile, the German forces under Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, retreated backwards, but leaving infrastructures of hazardous mines and demolitions. During this time, ground and supply reinforcements to the Allies were also slowed down by the concentration of power, put to the 15th Strategic Air Force and bombing campaigns.

After progressing forward and taking Volturno, Trigno, then Sangro, the Allies were halted at Garigliano, where Kesselring finally stopped to take a stand. On January 17th, the Battle of the Garigliano (river) began, and on January 22nd, the VI Corps, comprised of 50,000 US soldiers and British troops, in a surprise maneuver, landed on the Anzio beaches, but did not move further to cut off Kesselring from behind. This left him the opportunity to build up troops, thus prolonging the battle exponentially. Allied forces also conducted three separate battles on Cassino and its Monastery Hill, upon which stood an abbey, a prime location for observation posts. None of these Allied attacks were successful.

Finally, the decision was made to air bomb access to roads and rail communications, thus reducing Kesselring’s supply line, and he finally withdrew north on May 16th. The Allied forces moved forward and rode into Rome on June 4th, 1944, thus liberating Rome and the southern part of Italy. The fight in northern Italy, however, was protracted further, because the Allies, under Fifth Army Commander Mark W. Clark, made the side journey to Rome, instead of chasing after the retreating German forces.

The final set of attacks, after waiting out poor weather conditions, started with Operation Encore, beginning in the last days of February, 1945. The US 10th Mountain Division crossed over the Apennines Mountains and German-installed minefields, to line up with the II Corps, and began pushing the Germans off their positions on Monte Castello, Monte Belvedere, and Castelnuovo. The 8th Army forces broke through the Argenta Gap after a large bombardment was conducted in the area, then met up with the 6th Corps close to Bologna, then captured it, along with reinforcement groups. Further take-over operations occurred at Venice, Trieste, Milan, Genoa, and Turin. When Berlin fell on May 1st, 1945, the Germans in Italy surrendered on May 2nd, 1945.

Total losses are said to be at: Allies-305,000; 313,495 casualties; and 8,011 aircraft. For the Italians, 15,197 killed. The Axis forces incurred: 336,650-580,630 killed, lost, and injured. German count of those who surrendered or were captured, were 1,000,000. For Italians still fighting with Germans, the count was 13,021.

Photo Gallery

Cruiser Savannah immediately after being hit by a German guided bomb during the Salerno operation, September 11 1943
Source: United States National Archives

Supermarine Spitfire of the US 307th fighter squadron on the beach near Salerno after being shot down, however the pilot was uninjured, Paestum Italy, September 1943
Source: United States Coast Guard

German 7.5cm PaK 40 near Salerno, September 1943
Photographer: Lüthge
Source: German Federal Archive

In December of 1944, Adolf Hitler decided to make a last-ditch effort to wipe out the Allied forces. By this time, after the ill-fated attempt to kill Hitler, which was conducted by a few who were closest to him, Hitler was listening to only two of his most trusted military commanders: Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and General Alfred Jodl. The rest were left out in the cold. Under these circumstances, it was also hard for the Allied command group to even comprehend what was going on in Hitler’s mind. When the German forces began settling in on one side of the Ardennes Forest, opposite from where several weary Allied divisions were stationed, Allied Command assumed that the German forces were just resting and waiting for something better. General Eisenhower was advised accordingly by others in command: Major General Harold R. Bull, and Major General John F.M. Whiteley, backed by Chief of Staff, Lt. General Walter Bedell Smith. What would later be described as a ‘failure in intelligence’ communications on a grand scale, ultimately, resulted in the second bloodiest war since World War I and the Meuse-Argonne battle.

The Beginning

In the early morning hours of December 16th, 1944, three German armies, comprised of some 2.5 thousand soldiers, moved their way through the Ardennes forest, navigating trees and rugged roads, and engaged the four divisions of American soldiers, who were caught totally unware. One such division, the inexperienced 106th Division, was almost totally destroyed, yet was able to put up enough of a battle to gain time for defenses to pull together at St. Vith. Under the leadership of Brigadier General Bruce C. Clarke, the Combat Command B, 7th Armored Division, was able, for six days, to hold off the Germans from taking St. Vith, a crucial objective for the Germans, because of St. Vith’s railroad and communications center. On the sixth day, the US Army, having suffered great losses, finally withdrew to Salm River, but the Germans had also suffered tremendous losses, including lack of vital replenishments. It was later determined that this battle at St. Vith, was a major turning point against the Germans’ closely-timed plan to divide Allied forces and break their will to fight back. The final objective for the Germans was to roll through to Antwerp, Belgium, but now their time table was off by three days.

Bastogne

Meanwhile, Allied Command was quickly shoring up defenses along the way, and building a counteroffensive. The 99th Division Artillery Group were hunkered in around Monschau, while the 2nd Infantry Division was on Eisenborn Ridge, thus fighting off any German advances towards Liege at the south-eastern border of Belgium. The 4th Infantry Division were also in play in this area. Further south, the 101st Division, now located at Bastogne, was in danger of being surrounded by the XLVII Panzer Corps, which had not experienced delays. While the Panzer Corps was initially supposed to pass Bastogne and head towards the Meuse, the commander unwisely informed his commanders that they should commit there first, thus interrupting the timeline. When the German commander on December 22nd, demanded that the American forces in Bastogne should surrender, Brig. General Anthony C. McAuliffe said “Nuts!” right back. As the weather broke on that day, supply airdrops were made to Bastogne, and the 4th Armored Division broke through to assist Bastogne. The bulge of the German army’s push (hence the battle name) was the strategic spread outwards of German forces against the Allied front line, from the Ardennes, to various points in south-eastern Belgium.

The End Finally Comes

The battles, particularly at St. Vith, were bloody and hard. As the Germans became bogged down in numerous positions, more battles ensued. The German panzer army spearhead finally reached 20 miles outside of Liege, but was stopped there by the Allied counterattack. The Germans finally backed away in January of 1945, and the Battle of the Bulge finally ended, January 16th, when Allied task forces from the north and south, met up at Houffalize. In all, some 76,890 US soldiers were killed, missing, or wounded. It should also be mentioned that Belgium citizens tended to American soldiers as best as they could, and also suffered during this time.

Important to Know:

Photo Gallery

Browning M1919 .30 caliber machine gun post manned by United States soldiers near Bastogne, Belgium, December 10 1944
Photographer: Fenberg
Source: United States Army Signal Corps

Armored reconnaissance jeep of US 82nd Airborne division carrying troops on a road in the Ardennes Forest, Belgium, December 1944
Source: United States National Archives

U.S. Troops of the 101st Airborne Division watching a C-47 Skytrain transport plane deliver supplies to their unit, Bastogne Belgium, December 26 1944
Source: United States Army Signal Corps

A German soldier during the Ardennes Offensive, December 1944
Source: United States National Archives

M8 armored car of the U.S. 11th Armored Division with troops of the U.S. 84th Infantry Division in Noville, Belgium January 16 1945
Source: United States Army

US 5th Armored Regiment tankers gathering around a fire opening Christmas presents, near Eupen, Belgium, December 30 1944
Source: United States Army Center of Military History